In this way, we begin to understand what is concerned, taking into account its etymological meaning Philologywhich XX XXXXXXX XXXX theXXXXXterms XXXXX (love) XXX λόγος (word, XXXXXX) and XXXXXXXXX XXXXX a XXXX of XXXXX.[2]
XX're XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX the XXXXXXXXXX XX our language.
The XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX linguists noticed XXXXXXXXX correspondences between XXX XXXXXX XX cognate XXXXX in the early Indo-European languages.
One XX XXX first XXXXX XXXX XX XX XXXXXXXXXX was the Germanic XXXXXXXXX shift (“XXXXX’s XXX”), which XXXXXXXXX earlier XXXXXXXXX XXXXX to voiceless fricatives (XX. Sanskrit XXXXXX : XXXXXXX three), voiced XXXXX XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX (Skt. XXXX : Eng. two), and “voiced XXXXXXXXX” XX plain voiced XXXXX in XXXXXXXX (XXX. bhra¯XXX- : Eng. XXXXXXX).
XXX global XXXXX that “sound XXXXXX is regular,” or that “XXXXX laws have no exceptions,” was first XXXX XX the XXXXXX “Neogrammarian” (Junggrammatiker) XXXXXX in the late XXXX’s XXX has XXXX XXXXXXXX in some form XXXX since. XX XXX be XXXXXXXXXX the fundamental theorem XX historical linguistics.
But XXXX’s not the only method in XXXXXXXXXX linguistics, it also XXX the XXXXXXXXXXX method.
The XXXXXXXXXXX method XXXXXXXX XX find XXXXXXX sound XXXXXXX XXXXXXX languages. XXXXXXXXXXX reconstruction is based XX several principles, XXXXXXXXX:
X XXXXXX important XXXXX XXXXX Historical linguistics XXX XXX Sound XXXXXXX.
There are several XXXXX XX XXXX:
XXXXXXXXXX: XXX sounds in a word are XXXXXXXX, e.g. XXXXXXX → XXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXX: X XXXXX XX XXXXX XX the middle of a word, e.g. Latin XXXXXXXXX → French XXXXXXXX
Prothesis: X sound is XXXXX to XXX XXXXXXXXX of a XXXX, e.g. Latin XXXXXX → French école
XXXXXXXXXXXX: X sound XXXXXXX closer to a XXXXXX sound, e.g. XXXXX XXXX → XXXXXXX XXXX
XXXXXXXX: XXXXXX a consonant more sonorous, e.g. Latin XXXX → Spanish vida
Semantic Shift
XXXXXXXX change occurs XXXX XXX meaning of a word or XXXXXXXX changes. XXXXX are XXXXXXXX theories of semantic XXXXXX. Several of XXX processes in XXXXXXXX change XXX:
Narrowing: XXX word's sense goes from XXXXX XX narrow. XX XXXXXXXXX Chinese, XXXX XXXXXXXX XX XXX XXXX and children; it XXXXXX only to XXX wife in XXXXXXXXX.
Widening: The word's XXXXX XXXX XXXX XXXXXX XX XXXXX. XX Classical Chinese, jiang and he XXXXXXXX XX XXX Chang XXXXX and XXXXX He (i.e. the Yangtze and XXXXXX XXXXXX), but XXX XXX generic XXXXX XXX XXXXX.
XXXXXXXX: Sometimes, a XXXX's sense can XXXXXX by XXXXXXXX, e.g. XXX Chinese XXXX XXXXX, XXXXX XXXX to refer XX XXX gods of the land XXX XXX grains. XX ancient kings XXXXX worship these XXXX, the XXXX XXXXX gained XXX sense XX nation.
XXXXXXXXXX: Sometimes, a XXXX's XXXXX can shift XXXX a part to XXX XXXXX. For example, the Chinese XXXX ji used to XXXXX to the final XXXXX of XXXX XXXXXX, XXX XXX means season.
Metaphor: Sometimes, a XXXX's XXXXX XXX change XX XXXXXXXX, e.g. XXXXXXXXX, which XXXX XX XXXX spread XXXXX, but XXX XXXXX transmit information.
XXXXXXXXX: The word's sense goes XXXX XXXX to XXXXXX. For XXXXXXX, kill XXXX to XXXX XXXXXXX, but now XXXXX XXXXXXXXX.
Meiosis: The word's XXXXX goes XXXX strong to weak. For XXXXXXX, astound used to mean strike XXXX thunder, but now means XXXXXXXX strongly.[X]
Language and XXXXXXXXXX
Well-interpreted linguistic evidence XXX XX an XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX of information XXXXX the past. XXXX if XX didn't XXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXX history, number and XXXX of the XXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX in XXXXXXX would suggest an event such as XXX Norman conquest XX 1066, XXXXX exposed England XX French-speaking domination XXX XXXX than two XXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXX is sometimes our only source XX information XXXXX prehistoric XXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXX
XX XXXX XXX, we XXX understand XXX importance XX historical XXXXXXXXXXX in our own XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, XXXX XX humans XXX XXXXXXXXX, understanding XXX XXXXXXXXXX with the help of history and XXXX our own language, and thus XXX XX unnoticed like XXX XXXXX person XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX our XXXXX, XXXX XXXXXXX XX to XXX we are today. XXX XXXXXXXX is also culture, history XXX XXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX afloat with this XXXX helps us XXXX afloat XXXX ourselves. Let's not XXX our XXXXXXX XXX XXXX.
[X] XXXXX, D. (n.d.). Historical XXXXXXXXXXX. Retrieved XXXX 03, XXXX, from https://XXX.XXXX.XXXXX.XXX/XXXXXXXX/XXXXXXXXXX-XXXXXXXXXXX
[2] Irving, J. (XXXX, July XX). Philology. XXXXXXXXX XXXX 03, XXXX, from https://www.ancient.eu/Philology/
[3] XXXXXXXXXXX/Historical XXXXXXXXXXX. (2019, June 19). XXXXXXXXX XXXX 03, 2020, from https://XX.XXXXXXXXX.XXX/XXXX/Linguistics/Historical_Linguistics
Historical linguistics
Approximately 6,000 languages are spoken worldwide; but exactly how would we define a language?
In a rather simple way, when we talk to someone and they understand us; and conversely, when someone speaks to us and we are able to understand what this person is communicating to us.
To begin to develop this topic, it is necessary to detail what we mean by historical linguistics, which is refered to“a subfield of linguistics in which an investigation of the history of languages is used to learn about how languages are related, how languages change, and what languages were like hundreds and even thousands of years ago — even before written records of a language.”X
In XXXX way, XX XXXXX XX understand XXXX XX XXXXXXXXX, taking into account XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX is XXXXXXX from XXX Greek terms XXXXX (XXXX) XXX XXXXX (word, XXXXXX) and literally means a love of words.2
We'XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXX of our language.
XXX XXXXX historical XXXXXXXXX noticed XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX the sounds of cognate XXXXX in the early XXXX-European XXXXXXXXX.
XXX of the XXXXX sound laws to be discovered was XXX XXXXXXXX consonant XXXXX (“XXXXX’s XXX”), which converted XXXXXXX voiceless XXXXX to voiceless XXXXXXXXXX (cf. XXXXXXXX XXXXXX : English XXXXX), XXXXXX XXXXX XX XXXXXXXXX stops (XXX. dvau : Eng. XXX), XXX “voiced XXXXXXXXX” to plain XXXXXX stops in Germanic (Skt. bhra¯XXX- : Eng. XXXXXXX).
XXX XXXXXX claim that “sound change XX regular,” or that “XXXXX laws have XX XXXXXXXXXX,” XXX XXXXX made XX XXX XXXXXX “Neogrammarian” (Junggrammatiker) XXXXXX in XXX late XXXX’s XXX has been XXXXXXXX in some XXXX XXXX XXXXX. It can XX considered XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX of historical XXXXXXXXXXX.
XXX XXXX’s XXX the XXXX XXXXXX in historical XXXXXXXXXXX, it XXXX has thecomparative method.
XXX XXXXXXXXXXX method attempts XX find XXXXXXX XXXXX changes XXXXXXX languages. Comparative reconstruction XX based XX several principles, including:
A really XXXXXXXXX XXXXX about XXXXXXXXXX linguistics are theXXXXX XXXXXXX.
XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXXXX XX XXXX:
Metathesis: XXX XXXXXX in a XXXX are XXXXXXXX, e.g. nuclear → XXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXX: A XXXXX is XXXXX to the middle XX a word, e.g. Latin XXXXXXXXX → XXXXXX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX: A XXXXX XX added to XXX beginning of a XXXX, e.g. XXXXX schola → French école
XXXXXXXXXXXX: X XXXXX becomes closer XX a nearby sound, e.g. Latin octo → XXXXXXX otto
Lenition: Making a consonant XXXX XXXXXXXX, e.g. XXXXX XXXX → XXXXXXX vida
Semantic XXXXX
XXXXXXXX change XXXXXX XXXX the XXXXXXX XX a word or morpheme changes. There XXX multiple theories of semantic XXXXXX. XXXXXXX XX the XXXXXXXXX in semantic XXXXXX XXX:
Narrowing: XXX XXXX's XXXXX XXXX from broad to XXXXXX. XX Classical Chinese, XXXX referred XX XXX XXXX and children; it refers only to the wife in Putonghua.
Widening: The XXXX's XXXXX XXXX from narrow XX broad. In Classical Chinese, XXXXX XXX he referred XX XXX Chang Jiang XXX XXXXX XX (i.e. XXX XXXXXXX and XXXXXX Rivers), XXX are now XXXXXXX terms XXX river.
XXXXXXXX: XXXXXXXXX, a XXXX's sense can XXXXXX by XXXXXXXX, e.g. the Chinese XXXX XXXXX, which used XX refer XX the gods of the land XXX the grains. As XXXXXXX kings would XXXXXXX these XXXX, XXX XXXX later XXXXXX XXX sense XX nation.
XXXXXXXXXX: XXXXXXXXX, a word's XXXXX can shift from a part to the XXXXX. For example, the XXXXXXX XXXX ji XXXX XX refer to XXX final month XX each season, but XXX XXXXX XXXXXX.
XXXXXXXX: Sometimes, a XXXX's sense XXX XXXXXX by XXXXXXXX, e.g. XXXXXXXXX, which used to XXXX spread seeds, XXX XXX means XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXX: XXX XXXX's XXXXX XXXX XXXX weak to strong. XXX XXXXXXX, kill used XX mean torment, XXX now XXXXX XXXXXXXXX.
Meiosis: XXX word's sense XXXX XXXX XXXXXX to XXXX. For example, astound XXXX to mean XXXXXX with XXXXXXX, XXX XXX XXXXX surprise strongly.X
Language XXX prehistory
Well-interpreted linguistic XXXXXXXX XXX XX an important XXXXXX of information XXXXX the XXXX. Even XX XX XXXX't know anything XXXXX European history, number XXX rank XX XXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX in XXXXXXX XXXXX suggest an event such as XXX Norman conquest XX XXXX, which exposed England XX French-XXXXXXXX domination for XXXX than XXX XXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXX XXX only XXXXXX of XXXXXXXXXXX about prehistoric migration.
XX this way, we XXX XXXXXXXXXX XXX importance of historical XXXXXXXXXXX in our own cultural XXXXXXXX, XXXX XX XXXXXX XXX Americans, XXXXXXXXXXXXX our XXXXXXXXXX XXXX the XXXX XX XXXXXXX XXX XXXX XXX own language, and XXXX XXX go XXXXXXXXX XXXX XXX other person without really XXXXXXX our XXXXX, what XXXXXXX us to who we XXX XXXXX. XXX XXXXXXXX XX XXXX culture, XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX afloat XXXX this also helps XX stay XXXXXX XXXX ourselves. XXX's not XXX our culture get lost.