The Speaking Brain.
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The Speaking Brain.
Introduction
The working of the brain has always been a fascinating topic and a matter of great interest for a very long time. Research in issues of the brain has been greatly improved by advanced technologies such as fMRI, EEG, MEG, PET that have helped scientists have a deeper understanding of the brain by providing crystal clear images. From previous researches, it has been concluded that the brain is divided into two halves, the right, and the left hemisphere. This division is referred to as lateralization and is found in all animals, including human beings (Hagoort, & Levelt, 2009). These hemispheres have specific functions with the right hemisphere controlling the left side of the body and vice versa for the left hemisphere. Apart from the general function of controlling the right side of the body, the left hemisphere is also responsible for controlling both speech and language. The left hemisphere has different areas that are responsible for speech and language, such as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the Motor cortex, Cerebellum, and the Arcuate fasciculus. This paper aims at describing speech and language as a brain function by defining these areas and their functions and the related current research findings.
Overview
Recent decades have seen a rise in the research into how the brain processes language and speech. It has been generally accepted that speech control is part of a complex brain network since speech formation requires numerous different processes that involve putting thoughts into words, the formation of complete sentences, and the actual utterance of the words (Bohland, Bullock, & Guenther, 2010). Parts of the brain activated when language is conveyed to us depend on the means of input, such as reading words or seeing sign language using our optic nerves or spoken language using the auditory nerves and the auditory cortex. These nerves and cortexes interpret XXXX we see and XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX familiar shapes XXX sounds, but XXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX their meaning. The XXXXXXXXXXXXXX of such XX left for XXXXX parts of XXX XXXXX.
XXXXX’s area
XXX speaking brain XXX Broca’s XXXX, which XX XXXX referred XX as the convolution of Broca. It XX XXXXXXX in XXX XXXXXXX part of XXX left hemisphere of the brain. XX XXXX in XXX XXXXX frontal XXXXXXXXXXX, anterior to XXX face XXXX XX the motor XXXXXX, XXX just above the Sylvian XXXXXXX. Broca’s XXXX was discovered XX a XXXXXX neurologist, XXXX Broca XXXXX XXX XXXX. He discovered it after XXXXXXXXXX an autopsy on a XXXXXXX XXX had severe XXXXXXXX problems which displayed XXX XXXXXXX’s XXXXXXX lobe had been XXXXXXXX damaged (XXXXXXXXX, & XXXXX, XXXX). XXXXX’s area is XXXX XX XX two areas XXX pars triangularis (XXXXXXXX XXXX 45) XXX the XXXX opercularis (Brodmann area XX)
The primary role XX Broca’s area in speech XX XXX creation XX XXXXXXXX of XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX symbols XXXXXXXX XXXX the phonetic-XXXXXXXXXXXX, syntactic, and semantic XXXXXXX of XXXXXXXX (Bohland, XXXXXXX, &XXX; Guenther, 2010). It XXXX XXXXXXXX in executing XXXXXXXX XXX the primary XXXXX XXXXX (XXXXX’s XXXX X), XXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX are XXXX XXXX XXXX XXX muscles of the XXXXXX, XXXXXX, XXXXXX, and lips XXXX enable XXX XXXXXXXXX of articulation and phonation XXX allowing the XXXXXXXX XX XX grammatical XXXXX. XXXXXXX’s XXXXX 44 (XXXX opercularis) in the XXXXX’s XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX producing speech XXXX clearly, XXX choice XX information XXXXXXX different sources, XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XX speech elements into XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX, and phonological XXXXXXX, complex semantics and verbal working XXXXXX. Its counterpart, XXXXXXX Field 45 (area triangularis), XXXXXXXX XXXX complex XXXXXXX such as XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXX abstract, XXXXXXX application, speech fluency, XXXXXX attention, XXXX production. It also plays a role in XXX association XX XXX XXXX with the noun, in XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXX while reading aloud, and XXXXXXXXXXXXX affective XXXXXXX (Bohland, Bullock, &XXX; Guenther, XXXX).
XXXXXX XXXXXXXX
It XXX earlier assumed XXXX the XXXXX’s area was XXXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX and XXX linguistic comprehension, however XXXXXX studies have linked XXX Broca’s area XXXX a range XX XXXXXXXXXX XXX non-linguistic XXXXXXX XXX its XXXXXXXXXXXX in XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX. XXXXX XXXXXXX have also XXXXXXXXXX that XXXXXXXXX XXXX take XXXXX outside the language XXXXXXXX, XXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXX basic XXXXXXXXX in word XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX-making, and XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX are XXXXXX to the XXXX lower frontal XXXXX (XXXXXXX-Wilson, 2019). XXXXXXX, it XXX XXXX felt XXXX XXXXX is a XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXX processes XXX the non-verbal auditory discrimination, XXXX that XXX formant transitions analogous to the frequency changes XXX important for phonemic discrimination. These XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXX be XXXXXXXX XXXX XXX XXXXXX changes in XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX the same as in the XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX the XXXXXXXX information XXXX make the XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX a question XXX a XXXXXXXX.
Studies done using XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX and transcranial magnetic XXXXXXXXXXX (XXX) methods XXXX XXXXX XXXXXX semantic processing and XXXXXX linguistic XXXXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX (Brodman Area XX) is activated in XXXX hemispheres. More specifically, the XXXX was XXXXXXX XX XXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX of XXXXXXXX knowledge or the XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXX interpretation (XXXX, 2017). Conclusions XXXX been made thatXX Brodman Area XX is included in XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX or selection, it XX also XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX during lexical or XXXXXXXX ambiguity. With the help of XXXX, XXXXXXXXXX have XXXX able XX determined how XXX Brodman XXXXX 45 XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX listening to sentences XXXX XXXX high semantic ambiguity.
Wernicke’s area
XXX XXXXXXXX’s XXXX XX a part XX XXX XXXXX found in the XXXXXXXXX third XX XXX XXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX of XXX XXXX hemisphere XXXXX to XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXX. It was XXXXX XXXXXXXXX by a XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX Carl Wernicke in XXXX. The XXXXXXXX’s XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX for XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX development. XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX have understood that language comprehension XXX production is a XXXXXXX process XXXX involves a XXXXXXX XX different XXXXXXX of XXX brain, XXX XXX XXXXXXXX’s XXXX XXXXX a XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX in XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX and XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX itself (Binder, 2015).
Arcuate XXXXXXXXXX
Arcuate XXXXXXXXXX XX a XXXX of XXX XXXXX brain that is responsible XXX XXXXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX consists XX a white-matter fiber. XXX XXXXXX XX the AF serve as a XXXXXXX XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX and expressive areas. XX plays a crucial XXXX in XXX XXXX of repetition in XXX XXXXXXXX centers XX XXX cortex XX a neurocognitive function. Further, XXX arcuate XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX the XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XX repetition (Moseley et al. XXXX). This function XX specific XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX which goes XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX in the neural system. XXX XXXXXXX fasciculus XX a pathway XXXXXXXXXX to the Sylvian Fissure. XXXX part of XXX brain connects the posterior receptive XXXXX and the premotor XXX motor XXXXX XXX a relay station. XXX AF XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX the temporal XX frontal regions XXX in the XXXXXXXX direction XX XXXX. Neurologists believe XXXX XXX arcuate fasciculus is responsible XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX that are vital XXX the XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX in XXX XXXXX. However, XXXX the XXXXXXX fasciculus XXX lesions, the XXXXXX may XX depression. The arcuate fasciculus also called XXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX characteristics of XXXXXXXXX. XXX AF XXXXXXXX XX associated with XXX ability to recall words XXXXXXXX easily. XXX XXXX XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX anterior sections making it a vital component XX the XXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXX the years.
XXXXXXXXXXXXX the XXXXXXX fasciculus helps XXXXXXXXXX how the XXXXX’s XXX XXXXXXXX’s XXXX XXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX name XXX the Broca’s XXXX XX the XXXXX association cortex. The XXXXX’s XX XXXXXXXXXXX for how the XXXXXXX XXXX in the field XX the moth XXXX forming words (Catani, XXXXXXX, XXXX). XXXXXX XX the XXXXX’s area causes XXXXXXXX is XXXXXX. X person XXXX a damaged Broca’s area XXXXX it XXXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX and difficulty XXXX XXXXXXX. XX worst-case scenarios, people with a damaged XXXXX’s XXXX XXX find it XXXX XX speak XXXXXXXXX, because XXX XXXXXX of XXX face XXX work, XXX XXXX cannot be XXXXXXXXX XX move.
XXX XXXXXXXX’s area. This is XXXX to be XXX hearing association cortex. This part is XXXXXXXXXXX XXX understanding XXX language. XXXXXXX, XXXX XXXX area XX XXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXX XXX XXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXX they XXX saying XXXX not make any sense (XXXXXX, Mesulam, 2008). Although in severe cases, when this part XX XXXXXXX, a XXXXXX may XXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXX of comprehension for written and XXXXXX words. Also, an affected XXXXXX XXX speak but can neither XXXX understand XXX XXXXXX. XXXXXXXXX, when XXXXX XX damage XX XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX, most people retain the XXXXX XXXXXXXX XX the Broca’s XXXX XXX the XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XX the XXXXXXXX’s XXXX. XXXXXXXXXXX, they cannot XXXXXXXXXX XXX two XXXXXXXX, XXXXX leads to XXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX but lacking the ability to XXXXXXX to XXX information appropriately.
Recent XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXX the MRI XXXXXXXXXXXX advent of diffusion XXXXXX the XXXXXXXXXX XX XX in all human XXXXXX. The research XXXXX that XXX white matter XXXXXX the anterior segment of the AF is XXXXXX in the XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XX the XXXXXXXX-frontal, XXXXX is XXXXXX in XXX left XXXXXX. XXXXXXX, the functions of XXX AF concerning language XX quite XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX to XXXXXX XXXXXXXX (Hagoort, & XXXXXX, XXXX). XXX increased XXXXX on AF XX XXXXXXX of its unclear XXXXXXXX XXXX in the ordinary duties related XX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXX pathological XXXXXXX XX recovery from injury. XXXXXXX, there is XXXXX XX XXX XX function of XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XX visualization in XXXXXX humans.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum XX XX the XXX XXXX of XXX brain where the XXXXXX cord and XXX brain XXXX. The XXXXXXXXXX is XXXXXXXXXXX for XXXXXXXXX information XXXX sensory systems XXX regulating XXXXX XXXXXXXXX. The XXXXX movements involve posture, balance, XXXXXXXXXXXX XXX speech. XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX balanced XXXXXXXX activity XXX is XXXXXXXXX for XXXXXXXX motor XXXXXXXX. The cerebellum is an area of XXX XXXXX responsible XXX XXX XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXX XXXXXXXX (XXXXXXXXX, XXXX). Information from various XXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX XX the dual role in XXX verbal XXXXXXX. XXXXX, the XXXXXXXXXX takes XXXX in the XXXXXXXXXXXX of online sequences of syllables XX XXXX larger XXX clear utterances. Secondly, XXX XXXXXXXXXX appears XX XXX in temporarily organizing internal speech XXXXXXX a XXXXXX code. XXX posterior XXXXXXXXXX exhibits an XXXXXXX in the lateral XXXXXX XX the VI lobule. XXXX shows XXXX there XX a connection XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXX XX speech (Callan, Kawato, XXXXXXX, &XXX; XXXX). The left Cerebellar XXXXXXXXXXX in process of singing XXXXX XXX right cerebellar is XXXXXXXXXXX XXX processing of XXXXXX. XXXX, the left cerebellar XXXXXXXXX low XXXXXXXX data XXXXX the right cerebellar XXXXXXXXX XXXX filtered information.
Recent XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX that XXX cerebellum XX involved in language and cognition. The cerebellum XXXXXXX XXXXXX and XXXXXXXX in XXXXXXX ways, with the XXXX XXXXXX one being dysarthria. XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX when the XXXXXXXXXX control is XXX present during motor movements. Another common XXXXXXXXX is XXX cerebellar XXXXXX which XXXXXX XXXXX the removal of a cerebellar tumor. XXXXXXX XXXX shown a XXXXXXXXXXX in the functions XX XXX cerebellum XXX XXX role it XXX make XXXXXXX language XXXXXXXXXX. (Mariën, &XXX; Borgatti, 2018). However, XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXX XX be conducted to show the XXXXXXXXX of the XXXXXXXXXX and the XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX it XXX because XXXXXX it XXX XXXXX function feels XXXX a XXXXXX concept.
Motor Cortex
The Motor XXXXXX is an XXXX on XXX XXXXXXX XXXX which is responsible XXX XXXXXXXXX nerve functions of XXXXXX. XXXXX XXXXXXXX, XXXXX beings XXXX several XXXXXX parts, XXX XXX XXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX control different elements in the psychology XX speech. The XXXXX XXX is called XXXXXXX XXXXX. This XXXXX XXXX both as a XXXXXXX nerve XXX motor nerve. It XXXXXXXX the diaphragm which XX XXXXXXXXXXX for movement during inhalation XXX XXXXXXXXXX of air in the lungs of a living XXXXX. XXX XXXXXX is XXX XXXXXXXXX nerves. XXXX is a combination XX complex tissues present in the XXXXXX. XXX tissues XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXX XX XXX voice. XXX superior XXXXXXXXX nerves control the larynx XXX XXXX gives it XXXXX control XX XXXXXX into an internal laryngeal nerve which sends XXXXXXXXXXX to the brain. Finally, there is XXX Hypoglossal XXXXX. XXXX XXXXX XXX the XXXXXXXXXXXXX related to the tongue. The importance is XXXXXXXX to the fact that humans cannot XXXXX XXXXXXX the XXXXXX.
The XXXXX cortex XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXX different areas XX XXX frontal XXXX. XXX XXXXX are XXX primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, XXX, finally, the supplementary motor area. These areas are XXXXXXXXXX to XXXXX XXXXXXXXX in various XXXXXXX XX XXX body, including the mouth. XXX motor area XXXXXXX XXXXXX the XXXXXX XXXXXX, which is XX XXX XXXXXXXX XX the XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXX the XXXXXXX XXXXXX.
Recent XXXXXXX XXXX proven that XXX XXXXX ability to XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX like smiling XXX XXXXXXXX is XXXXXXXXX in daily XXXXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX, like smiling XXX laughing, XXX deliberate, while acts XXXX XX XXX XXXXXXX XXX not XXXXXXXXX (Kern et al. 2019). XXXXXX way, XXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX essential in communication. XXXXX neurosurgery XXX conducted, there XXX a direct electrical stimulation to XXXX the functionality XX the human XXXXXXXX XXXXXX. However, XXXXX XXXXXXXXX of XXX XXXX and mouth plus the XXXXXX and lips XXXX stimulated when a vast region of the XXXXXXX motor XXXXXX was stricken. XXXXXXX XXX size XX the XXXXXX and lips, they were XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX to the experiment. This proves XXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX in XXXXX XXXX during the XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXX. However, XXXXX are still XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX to how XXX primary motor cortex XXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXX natural orofacial XXXXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXX research XX XXXXXXX and XXX colleagues XXX suggested that there is a piece XX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX that XXXXXX there is a XXXX between the XXXX XXXXX XXXXXX of the XXXXXXXX XXXX, XXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX language processing. The XXXXXXXXXX XXX conducted XX the leg XXX XXXX motor areas stimulation while XXXXXXX out loud XXX when using non-XXXXXX oral XXXXXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXXX indicate that during a speech, XXX XXXXXXX effect was XXXXXXXXXXX, and there was no XXXXXX on the XXXXXXXXXXXXX hemisphere. Further, during XXX loud XXXXXXX XXXXXXX, the XXXXXX on XXX leg area XX XXX motor XXXXXX was still XXXXXXXXX. Although, during the non-verbal oral XXXXXXXXX, the XXXXXXXXXXXX XXX slightly XXXXXX in the two regions (XXXXXXX et XX. 2019). The XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XX there XX a XXXX between the XXXXXXXXXXX of the language XXXXXXX XXX the hand motor region.
XXXXX XXXXXXXXX parts XXXX play a XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX to the XXXXX XXXXXXXXX above XXXX assist in XXXXXX XXX language XXXXXXX XXX Angular XXXXX. The XXXXXXX XXXXX is located in the XXXXXXXXX XXXX of the inferior parietal XXXXXX. XX has XXXXXXXX functions, XXXXXXXXX XXX involvement in XXXXXXXX processing XXXX XXXXXXX concept retrieval XXX XXXXXXXXXX integration, it XXXX XXXXXXXX semantic XXXXXXXXXXX during language comprehension. XXX XXXXXXX gyrus allows XX XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX types of language-related information whether auditory, visual or XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX a XXXXXXXXX XXXX with XXXXXXXXX images, XXXXXXXXXX XXX ideas. According to XXXXXXX (XXXX), The XXXXXXX XXXXX is a visual memory XXXXXX XXX XXXXX that turns written XXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXX and XXXX versa, XXXXXXXXX it plays a role in reading XXX comprehension. The Angular XXXXX is yet to reveal XXX its secrets and XXXXX XXXXXXX an XXXX of XXXXXXXX to many neurologists.
Recent studies XXXX unearthed XXXXX supporting XXXXX XXXX as XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX and XXX XXXXX XXXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXX cortex is found in XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX deep within the XXXXXXX sulcus. It is XXXXXXXX with context XXX XXXXXXXXXX, XXXX-XXXXXXXXX, interaction XXXX other people, XXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX (XX, XXXXXXX, &XXX; XXXX, 2014). XXX XXXXX ganglia XX a XXXXX of structures XXXXX deep at XXX XXXX XX the forebrain in the cerebral hemisphere. Its XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX in speech XXX XXXXXXXX XX XX XXXX in the XXXXXXXXX content of XXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXXX and meaning of others, and XX XXXXXX or XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXX
Humans XXX XXXXXX XXX chatty XXXXXX; XX exchange information and emotions XX XXXXXXXX as we are eager XX XXXXX.The human language needs constant acquisition XX new words XXXX XXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXX XXX vocabulary of XXXX XXXX XX,000 XXXXX in the average life of an XXXXX. The integration XXXXXXX motor XXX auditory information XX the XXXXXXXXX factor of XXXXXX XXXXXXXX new words. For all this XX be XXXXXXXXXXXX XX rely or XXXXXX XXX XXX two main parts in XXX XXXX hemisphere of our XXXXX (Broca’s area XXX XXXXXXXX’s XXXX) whose XXXXXX connections XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXX in XXX performance XX learning XXXXX. These two main parts are XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXX XXXXX XXXX as Arcuate XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXX Cortex, XXXXXXX XXXXX, XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXX XXXXX ganglia, XXXX XXXXXX we XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXX XXX respond XXXX XX XXX XXXXXX to. XXX brain XX still a mystery XX many neurologists XXX it still XXX a lot XX offer in terms of XXXXXX and language XXXXXXXXXX
References
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