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Essentials of Comparative Politics, 6ed, Patrick H. O’Neil
Chapter 7: Political Violence
Learning objectives
- Define political violence
- Identify reasons for political violence
- Be well versed in different explanations for political violence
- Understand the features of different forms of political violence
- Understand the means and ends of terrorism and revolution
- Identify the links between political violence and religion
- List methods to counter political violence
- Defining Political Violence?
- Political violence refers to politically motivated violence that occurs outside of state control, consisting of actions carried out by nonstate actors
- It is part of the broader category of ‘contentious politics’, which includes revolutions, civil war, riots and strikes.
- Why Political Violence?
- Political violence may arise due to:
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- Some institutions create violence by excluding, marginalizing, and polarizing populations, while some institutions reduce violence by promoting inclusion. For example, Presidentialism may increase violence, while in Nigeria, there are institutional conflicts over oil and presidential rule
- Ideational explanations: ideas may justify or promote the use of violence (ie. some forms of religious fundamentalism, nationalism)
- Ideas set out a worldview, diagnose problems, provide resolutions, and describe the means for achieving goals. Any of these things can inspire people to violence. For example, fundamentalism and nationalism can inspire violence against out-groups, while ISIS’s involvement in the Syrian Civil War can also be explained through ideational explanations.
- Individual explanations: Psychological or strategic factors may lead people to carry out violence (ie. humiliation, alienation).
- Individual experiences drive people to violence, with rational actors believing that violence is a strategy to achieve goals. For example, in Tunisia in 2010, economics and feelings of humiliation motivate Bouazizi’s self-immolation.
- Comparing Explanations of Political Violence
- Institutional, Ideational and Individual explanations exist on a spectrum from determinism to free will, and from particularistic to universal.
- Forms XX XXXXXXXXX Violence
- XXXXXXXXXX: Public XXXXXXX of the state in order XX overturn the XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXX
- Revolutions XXXXXXXXX involve some XXXXXXX of XXXXXX participation, where XXX goal XX XX gain control of the state, XXX where XXXXXXXXXXX XXX often, but not XXXXXX, XXXXXXX.
- A revolution XX XXX a XXXX d’état, XXXXX elites XXXXXX a regime XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX it with a XXX one, like in Chile, XXXX; Mali, 2012, a XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXX XXXXXXX XX XXX regime XXXX a transition to a XXX XXXXXX, XXXX XX XXXXX in XXXX and South Africa, 1994, or a XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, XXXXX XXX XXXXX seeks local XXXXXXX or XXXXXXXXXXXX, XXXX XXXXX XXXXX, XXXX.
- XXXXXX include:
- XXXXXXXX deprivation model, where XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX unmet XXXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX resentment, XXXX in Iran, XXXX; XXXXX, 2011. However, XXXX XXXXX XXX poor predictability XX revolutions.
- XXXXXXXXXXXXX approaches: XXXXX international and XXXXXXXX political XXXXXXXXXXX create opening for dissent, XXXX in XXXXXX, XXXX; Eastern Europe, 1989. However, XXXX XXXXXXXXXXX neglects the role XX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX
- Terrorism: XXX XX violence XX nonstate XXXXXX against XXXXXXXXX in order XX XXXXXXX a political XXXX
- XXX XXXXXXXXX (Fig X.2) classifies terrorism XX XXXXXXXXX violence XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXX actors and XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX. State-sponsored terrorism, XXXXXXX, may be XXXXXXXXX by the state.
- XXXXXXXXX is chiefly XXXXXXX out by XXXXXXXX actors (XXXX XXXXX-sponsored terrorism XXXXXXX XXXXXXX out XXXXXXX XXXXXXX), XXXXXXX civilians XXX has a political goal or XXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXX is XXX ordinary or “random” violence (XXXX is XXXXX), nonstate XXXXXX targeting a XXXXX (guerrilla XXX), or a XXXXX targeting XXXXX own XXXXXXXXX (XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX) or citizens of XXXXXXX state (war XXXXXX).
- Incidents XX XXXXXXXXX worldwide XXXX XXXX on XXX rise XXXX to 2015, XXX XXXX spiked XXXX 2010 to XXXX.
- XXXXXXXXXX explanations XXX XXXXXXXXX include:
- Feelings of XXXXXXXXXX or XXXXXXXXXXX, which generate XXXXXXXXXX, frustrations, XXX XXXXXX XXX vengeance
- Social benefits of membership, such as a sense of XXXXXXXX or XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXXX explanations XXX terrorism include:
- XXXXXXXX religious ideology
- XXXXXXXX: Belief that all institutions and XXXXXX XXX meaningless, and XXXX XXX only redeeming XXXXX XX violence
- Alternative: Ideas are a XXXXXXXXXXXXX, not a cause, XX violence.
- XXXXXXXXXXXXX explanations for XXXXXXXXX include:
- XXXXXXXX: XXXXXXX, XXXX of education, inequality (XXXXXXXX these explanations have XXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX)
- Political: XXXXXXXXX XX more common when XXXXX capacity and autonomy XXX XXXX, or when XXXXXXXXXX for XXXXXX participation are XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.
- Terrorism XXX XXXXXXXXXX: Means XXX XXXX
- Revolution leads XX regime change XX it XX nonviolent (more effective), has widespread public XXXXXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXXXX large, peaceful protests that XXX more likely XX yield XXXXXXXXX.
- XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX government, XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX (more indiscriminate violence, XXXXXX likelihood or interstate war)
- XXXXXXXXXX seldom XXXXXXX their policy goals, XXX have impact in areas XXXX XX the economy ( depresses XXXX XXXXXX as tourism, foreign direct investment, XXX stock markets), XXXXXXX (XXXXXXXXX anxiety and insecurity) XXX XXXXXXXX (XXXXXX XXXXX legitimacy, destabilizes politics). XX XXX XXXX XXXXXXX more XXXXXXXX
- Political Violence and Religion
- All XXXXXXXXX XXXX terrorists:
- Islam: Al Qaeda XXX ISIS
- Christianity: William XXXXXX (XXXXXXXX Alliance), inspired Timothy XXXXXXX (XXXX OKC XXXXXXX)
- Buddhism: Ashin Wirathu XXX the 969 XXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXX XXX be transformed XXXX violence XXX to
- Hostility to XXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXX in “XXXXXX war”, with XXXXX of the modern XXXXX XX marginalizing or XXXXXXXXXXXX believers
- XXXXXXXXX, apocalyptic, or XXXXXXX XXXXXX
- XXXXXXX to Counter Political Violence
- Counter-XXXXXXXXX in XXXXXXXXXXX have XXXXXXXXXXX the dilemma of freedom vs security, with XXX X.S. Patriot XXX and XX XXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXXX: may XXXXXXXXX immediate XXXXXX, XXX lead XX XXXX resentment later
- XXXX XXXXX: Sri XXXXX had XXXXXXX violence from XXXX–2009, XXXX Tamil XXXXXX represented an ethnic XXXXXXXX under the Sri Lankan nondemocracy, and XXXX significant discrimination against XXXXX XXXXXXXX. In 2009, the government XXXXXXXX a broad military offensive, XXXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX, organization collapses, government XXXXXXXXX massive XXX crimes violations XXX XXXXXXXXXXX of XXX Lankan democracy
- Case study: Syria XXXX from XXXXXXXX to civil war, with government XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXX, the formation XX XXXX XXXXXX Army XXXX military XXXXXXXXX. Results include a XXXXXX war, over 400,XXX XXXX, a XXXXXXX XXXXXXX crisis, XXXXXX XXXXX, radicalization XXX XXXXXX of terrorism.
- Reform: may XXXXXXX some demands, XXX can XXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX XXXXX
- North Ireland XXX Combat XXXXXXX Irish Republican Army (IRA), Protestant XXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXXX government. IRA claimed XX represent Catholic XXXXXXXX. XXXXXX led XX power XXXXXXX, political reforms to police XXX XXXXXXXX, and XXXXXXXX XXX social XXXXXXX to communities. XXXXXXX include XXXXXXX in XXXXXXXX and support XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX growth, but XXXXXXXXXXXX and sectarian tensions have XXXXXXXXX.
- XXXXXXXXXX: XXXXXXX the XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXX Violence
- XXXXXXXXXXXX, ideas, and individual XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX may XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX.
- XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXX are two distinct but XXXXXXX forms of XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX.
- XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX seldom achieves democratic regime change, but it XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXXXX.
- Under certain XXXXXXXXXX, XXX extreme religious belief can XXXXXXXX political XXXXXXXX.
- In XXXXXXXXXX XX political violence, XXXXXX XXXXX consider using XXXXXXXXXX or XXXXXX. For democracies, XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX may present a XXXXXXXX between XXXXXXXX and XXXXXXX.
XXXXX Credit XXXX X
XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX Politics, XXX, Patrick X. X’XXXX
XXXXXXX 10: XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
Learning XXXXXXXXXX
- Define freedom XXX equality in the development XXXXX
- Understand the XXXXXX XXX impacts of XXXXXXXXXXX XXX Colonialism
- List XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX of Imperialism
- XXXXXXXXXX the Challenges XX XXXX-Imperialism
- XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX and Prospects for Democracy XXX Development
- XXXX XXX challenges of development
Notes
- Freedom and Equality in XXX XXXXXXXXXX World
- XXX world XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX notions of XXX Third XXXX (XXXX XXX era) XXX XXXXXX South (XXXXX America, XXX, XXXXXX) to the XXXXXX of XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
- Middle XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX are XXXXXXX $4,XXX XXX $XX,XXX per capita XXX, XXXXXXXXXXXX less developed, but have seen recent and XXXXX rapid XXXXXX. XXXX more comparable to developed democracies
- XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX have less than $4,XXX per capita GDP, XXXX XXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX or declining XXXXXX in XXXXXX XXXXX
- Imperialism XXX XXXXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXX are a XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX with a XXXXX XXXXXX XX external regions or XXXXXXXXXXX XXX different peoples XXXXX XXX sovereignty
- XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX to a system in XXXXX a XXXXX extends its power XXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX to XXXXXXXX control XXXXXXXXX, resources, and XXXXXX. Dominated XX XXXXXXXX powers (XXXXX XX XXXXX), XXXXXXXXXXX XX driven XX economic, XXXXXXXXX, and cultural/religious XXXXXXX
- Imperialism XXXXX led to XXXXXXXXXXX, the physical XXXXXXXXXX of XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXXXXX XX Imperialism
- Imperialism led to XXX XXX artificial XXXXXXX (for example, XXXXXXX has XXX+ ethnic groups), XXXXXXXXXXXX structures, such as national XXXXXXXX (often XXX XXXXXXXX power), police and XXXXXXXX, taxation, XXXXX XXXXXXX XXX public XXXXX: roads, XXXXXXX, and XXXXXXXXX, XXXXX with XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX mixed
- Ethnic XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX were created in new XXXXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX favored certain XXXXXX (XXXX XX the Hutu XXX XXXXX in Rwanda), XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX basis for later XXXXXXXXXXXX movements
- Gender roles: XXXXXXXX XXXXXX roles were imposed on colonies, XXXX XXXXX impact; depending on XXXXXX and imperial power
- Imperialism XXX XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX, cash-XXXXX economies, mercantilist XXXXXXXXX economies (where colonies produced primary commodities only, XXXXXXXX goods sold XX XXXXXXXX center, XXX had little XXXXXXXXXXX of XXXXX and regional XXXXXXXX, along with limits on trade with XXXXX XXXXXXX, and business monopolies controlling XXXXXXXXX). XXXXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXXXXXX expansion XXX, however, occur under XXXXXXXXXXX.
- The XXXXXXXXXX of Post-Imperialism
- Post XXXXXXXX challenges:
- Create functioning XXXXXXXXXXXX
- XXXXX XXXXX capacity XXX autonomy
- XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX growth
- XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX
- Capacity is the ability of XXX state XX carry out basic tasks: Defending the country, making and XXXXXXXXX XXXXX, XXXXXXXX XXX economy, collecting XXXXX, XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX; providing XXXXXXXXX XXX healthcare
- XXXXXXXX lacked capacity because of XXX absence of a professional XXXXXXXXXX (imperial XXXXX XXXXXX after XXXXXXXXXXXXXX), as XXXX as the politicization XX bureaucracy (clientelism, XXXX seeking, corruption)
- Autonomy XX XXX XXXXXXX XX state to XXXXX its power independently of XXX public
- XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXX because of XXXXXXXXXXXXXX (state XXXXXXXX XXX exploited; kleptocracy ‘XXXX by theft’, where in 1990s: Nigerian XXXXXXXXX XXXXX over $1 billion, XXX in 2016: XX government XXXXXX $1 billion in assets XXXXXX by XXXXXX XXXXX XX Malaysian XXXXX minister
- International XXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX, XXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX actors shape state’s decisions.
- XXXXXXXX of weak XXXXXXXX and autonomy include:
- XXXXXXXXX criminality and corruption
- Greater civil and XXXXXXXX conflict
- Inability XX respond XX XXXXXXXXX XXX crises
- XXXX of XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX
- XXX XXXX XX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX
- States are XXXXXXXXXX challenges to XXXXXX nations XXX XXXXXXXX:
- XXXXXX XX ethnic/XXXXXXXXX conflicts include XXXXXXXXXX in XXXXXX, XXXXXXXXX dominance XX XXX group over others, clientelism XXX patrimonialism (which XXXXXXXXX ethnic disparities)
- Examples XXXXXXX, XXXXX rule in Shia-majority Iraq XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX, XXXXXXX monopolization of power in XXXXX, XXX Arab XXXXXXXXXX of black XXXXXXX population in XXXXX
- XXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX rights XXX another example, XXXX XXX problems including XXXX XXXX XXXXX male ownership XXX XXXX XXXXX XXXXXX XX XXXX or capital, and cultural XXXXXXXX (XXX XXXX XXXX XX XXXXX authority). XXXXXXXXX XX an XXXXXXX XXXXX land XXX reforms XXXXXXXXX in 1980s, XXXXX inheritance customs XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX difficult, XXXX consequences of “XXXXX violence” and XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXX big issue in former colonies, with XXXXXX including poverty and economics XXX laws XXXX favor XXXX XXXXXXXXX (XXXX XX XXX XXXXX tradition, where girls are viewed XX an economic XXXXXX). Consequences include sex-XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX; XXXXXXX of girl babies, XXXX XXXXXXXXXX (XXXX XX XXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX) in XXXXXXXXX, XXX XXXXXX risk of violent conflict and XXXXX? For XXXXXXX, XXXXX are 40 million missing girls in XXXXX; XX million in XXXXX
- Imperialism was XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XX unsustainable economics XXXXXXX XX primary commodity XXXXXXXXXX, which had to XXXXXX finished goods, creating XXXXX imbalances and XXXX.
- XXXXXXXXXXXXXX, after imperialism, was XXX XXXX of imperialism in which powerful XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX influence XXX economies of less-developed nations
- XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX for Democracy XXX Development
- span XXXXX="XXXXX-converted-XXXXX"&XX;
- XXXXXX substitution: XXXXXX imports XX XXXXXXX local XXXXXXXXXX.
- XXXX policies XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX, raising XXXXXX and XXXXXXXXX barriers, industries XXXXXXXXX government subsidies or XXXXXXX parastatal (partially XXXXX-owned), XXX weak XXXXXXXXXXX of XXXXXXX XXX intellectual XXXXXXXX rights
- XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXX fact XXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXX the lack XX competition XXXXXXX efficiency and innovation. XX XXX XXXX XXXXXX XX XXXXXX capital XXX goods; XXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX, fuelled XXXXXXXXXX , XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XX economic stagnation or a XXXXXX income trap
- Export-XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX: XXXXXX capital in XXXXX XXXX XXXX export
- This XXX adopted XX Asia, XXXX main policies including XXXXXXXXXXXX on the product life XXXXX, XXXX competitive XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX government XXXXXXXXX or XXXXXX parastatal (XXXXXXXXX state-XXXXX XX. South XXXXX’s XXXXXXXX), and XXXXXXXX special XXXXXXXX XXXXX (XXXX) XX lure foreign XXXXXXXXXX (XXXXX’s six XXXXX, XXXXXXXXX Shenzhen XXX XXXXXX in Guangdong province)
- Effects XXXX to achieve short-XXXX growth but sacrifice XXXX-XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXXXXXX also leads to XXXXXXXXXXX, policies required XXXXXXX controls XX continue functioning, consumer XXXXXXX became weaker, and the XXXXXXX became more difficult for governments XX XXXXXXX XXXX XXXX (XXXXXXX: 1997 Asian Financial Crisis). It also XXX to a XXXX in XXXXXXXXXX.
- Structural XXXXXXXXXX: XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXX XXXXXX forces
- XXXX known XX XXXXXXXXXXXXX or XXX Washington Consensus, this was XXXXXXX XX World XXXX, International XXXXXXXX Fund (IMF), and United States
- XXXX policies included:
- privatization XX state-XXX industry
- XXXXXXXXXXXX XXX reducing XXXX XX governance
- Removing investment XXX trade XXXXXXXX
- XXXXXXXXX budgets XXX XXXXXX off XXXXXXX XXXX
- Devaluation of currencies
- Mixed empirical results, XXXXX it XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX instability (XXX riots in Egypt, 1977; Greece XXXXX, 2010–-XXXX), undermined XXXXXX XXX recovery, XXX launched XXXXXXXX cuts XXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX
- Microeconomic solutions XXXXXXX informal economy, SME and microcredit solutions, XXXXXXXX XXXXX XX lttle consistent evidence it XXXXX, XXX XXX create cycles XX debt.
- XX XXX: The Challenges XX XXXXXXXXXXX
- Developing countries XXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXX and XXXXX XXXXXX countries.
- XXXXX XXXXX XXX many XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX these XXXXXXXXX, many XXXXX a common legacy XX imperial XXXX. Imperialism has XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXX’ XXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX, XXX economic XXXXXXXXXXXX.
- Developing countries XXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXX capacity and XXXXXXXX; XXXXX XXXXXXXXX challenges undermine XXXXXXXX and social stability.
- XXXXXXXXX social cohesion, XXXX XXXXXXXXXX countries struggle with ethnic or religious divides. Gender XXXXXXXXXX XX also a XXXXX XXXXXXX, XXXX XXXXXXXXX long-XXXX XXXXX if XXXX unaddressed.
- Many different policies XXXXX XX XXXXXXX economic growth, XXXX XXXX their own XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXXXXX.